Chapter 1 – Introduction
Chapter 2 – Description
Chapter 3 – Evaluation
Chapter 4 – Summary, Conclustions, Recommendations
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The
Problem and Its Setting
Statement
of the Problem
The problem was the
development and implementation of an empathic helping skills program for
selected inmates at the Gib Lewis State Prison, Woodville, Texas.
Subproblems
The first subproblem
was the development of the helping skills program with a focus on love and
empathy. The second subproblem was the
enlistment of a selected group of inmates.
The third subproblem was the implementation of the program.
Hypotheses
The first hypothesis
was that a suitable program would be developed within the program time
frames. The second hypothesis was that
the selected group of inmates would remain with the helping skills
program. The third hypothesis was that
the program would increase the selected inmates' ability to use several helping
skills.
Delimitations
The first delimitation
was that the program would not train the inmates to be advanced counselors or
competent in crisis intervention. The
second delimitation was that the program would be limited to those groups of
helping skills generally categorized as attending and empathy skills. The third delimitation was that no inmate
with a recent and severe disciplinary record would be allowed in the
program. The fourth delimitation was
that the participants would be selected by the chaplain with the help of
nominations from the inmate Christian congregation of the Gib Lewis
Prison. The fifth delimitation was that
the program would be biblically based, therefore, all of those selected would
have professed Christ and made a commitment to the integrity and authority of
the Bible.
Definitions
of Terms
"Helping
skills," a broad term generally referring to the many techniques used by
counselors, was limited to two categories of skills that help build
relationships. The two categories of
skills were attending and empathy.
"Attending
skills" applied to that group of skills and communications that send to
the hurting person a clear message, "I am interested in what you are
saying." Such skills included body
language, open invitation, minimal encouraging, reflection of content,
summarizing, and reflection of feeling.
"Empathy
skills" applied to that group of skills and communications that send to
the hurting person a clear message, "I understand what you say and feel
deeply about your situation." Such
skills included reflection of content and feeling, personalizing, interpreting,
self-disclosure, and a reflection with a new statement of meaning.
"Freeworld"
applied to persons and life outside of the prison environment.
"Prisonization"
applied to the process whereby a prisoner adapts to prison life by surrendering
his self-esteem and initiative to a dependency upon the system.
Assumptions
The first assumption
was that the Bible is the most significant source of truth regarding the nature
of healthy relationships. The second
assumption was that the God of the Bible is the invisible third party capable
of helping persons regardless of the environment or the skills of the
person. The third assumption was that
love is the principal Christian virtue and the primary source for the highest
and most productive level of relating between persons in general. The fourth assumption was that the church as
a local body of believers is a reality and alive within the Christian
congregation of a prison. The fifth assumption
was that every person desires and needs a healthy relationship. The sixth assumption was that every person
is capable of change and of developing healthier relationships. The seventh assumption was that the
psychological sciences contain and develop much truth about healthy
relationships when consistent with sound biblical theology.
Description
of the Gib Lewis Prison
The staff of Gib Lewis
State Prison in Woodville, Texas, has maintained the custody of approximately
1,300 minimum to medium custody prisoners for almost six years. The twenty-six acre compound is surrounded
by about three hundred acres of state prison property. In December 1995, the department board of
directors informed the executive staff of the Lewis Prison that in September 1996,
construction would begin for another 669 maximum security beds with the
capacity to double bunk. This would
double both the inmate population and the staffing requirements. Since that time, the construction date has
been delayed to July 1997.
The Lewis Prison had
experienced three small riots in the three years prior to project
implementation, and nearly every other prison similarly configured had
experienced riots. As a result, the
formerly open recreation yards were fenced, and regimentation of the inmate
population was increased. A new
building schedule was issued tightening all time frames for all activities.
The director was the
only full-time chaplain. He has been
supervising a host of dedicated volunteers that provide a full complement of inter-religious
ministries and programming. Supervision
for the programming of several religions included representatives of Protestant
Christianity, Roman Catholicism, Islam, Jehovah's Witness, Buddhism, and Wicca.
The general Christian
programs have had the following attendance.
Christian inmates attended three Sunday Protestant services (two
English, one Spanish) for an average Sunday attendance between 225 and
275. Volunteers led two mid-week Bible
studies with an average weekly attendance of eighty. A host of other primarily Christian volunteers came periodically
to hold special services either in the chapel or in the gym. A Roman Catholic priest led Mass on Friday
evenings with an average attendance of seventy-five. Every week the unit chaplain and volunteer chaplains processed
from five to ten death or critical illness messages and handled from twenty to
thirty or more general counseling sessions.
Three programs have
provided for a few specialized needs.
About twenty-five freeworld men volunteered to visit one-on-one with
inmates twice a month in the Lewis Mentor Program. On Saturdays and Sundays, in shifts of two or three persons each,
about twenty ladies volunteered to minister to the families of inmates who came
for visitation in the Lewis Hospitality Program. Three men went through extra training and served as volunteer
chaplains helping with crisis ministry throughout the unit.
Qualifications
of the Project Director
The director of the
program earned a B.A. Degree in 1985 with a double major in Bible and
counseling from the Criswell Bible College in Dallas, Texas. In 1990 the director earned a M.Div. Degree
with languages from Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary in Fort Worth,
Texas. During the school years he
volunteered for many ministry posts including preaching, teaching, visiting,
coordinating trips, and counseling.
During the last three years of seminary, he was a minister to the
elderly homebound members of Travis Avenue Baptist Church in Fort Worth until
1990 and occasionally taught singles at Travis. During his last year at seminary he helped start and was the
charter president of a singles group at the seminary.
He completed four
units of Clinical Pastoral Education in 1991 at the Shannon Medical Center in
San Angelo, Texas. Also in San Angelo,
he served as associate pastor at Harris Avenue Baptist Church and as a
suicide/crisis counselor for the Mental Health Mental Retardation Services of
the Concho Valley. Since 1993, he has
served as the staff chaplain of the Gib Lewis State Prison in Woodville, Texas.
Other training has
included the following:
Child Protective Services Academy Certificate, Texas Department of Human
Services Training Academy, Dallas, Texas, 1990;
Competent Toastmasters Certificate (1990) and Able Toastmasters
Certificate (1992), Toastmasters International, Santa Ana, California;
Suicide/Crisis Intervention Certificate, Mental Health and Mental
Retardation Services of the Concho Valley, San Angelo, Texas, 1991;
Organ Donor Counseling, South Texas Organ Bank, San Angelo, Texas, 1992;
Correctional Officer Certificate, Texas Department of Criminal Justice,
Institutional Division Training Academy, Gatesville, Texas, 1993;
Ethics Training for Counselors (1993) and Learning Styles (1993), Texas
Education Agency, Huntsville, Texas, 1993;
Racial Sensitivity and Cultural Diversity (1994), Satanism and
Ritualistic Crimes (1995), and Prison Gangs (1995), Cultural Diversity and
Civil Rights (1996), Angelina Criminal Justice Center and Academy, Woodville,
Texas;
Seven Habits of Highly Effective People Certificate, Covey Leadership
Center, Beaumont, Texas, 1995;
Post Traumatic Stress Intervention, Texas Department of Criminal
Justice, Huntsville, Texas, 1996.
Impending Death: Developing a
Plan of Care (1996) and Good Grief (1996), Hospice Care Program, Board of
Social Workers Examiner, Beeville, Texas.
The director is a
member in good standing of the following organizations and associations: the Lions Club International, the
Association of Clinical Pastoral Education, the American Correctional
Association, the American Correctional Chaplain's Association, the American
Protestant Correctional Chaplain's Association, the Association of Chaplains of
Texas, and the South East Texas Writers' League.
The
Importance of the Project
Theological
Rationale
Three theological
topics were considered to justify a helping skills program. Those three topics were: (1) the nature of Christian love, (2) the
responsibilities of the church, and (3) prison ministry in the New Testament.
Nature
of Christian Love
Overview
Love was assumed to be
an essential part of the nature of the Christian life and the primary source
for the highest level of relating between persons. With love being essential to the Christian life, this became the
essential theological element for justification, for the program was intended
to increase the selected prisoners' ability and skill at loving. Therefore, four theological areas relating
to the expression of love were put forward to justify how that love was and
should be expressed in the Christian life:
(1) the Christian's inherent love for others, (2) love as the example of
Jesus Christ, (3) specific examples of love's expression, and (4) the high
aspirations of the church.
Christian's
Inherent Love for Others
In the commands to
love and assuming God knows best, the healthiest relationship existed in love
between God and the human individual, and the next or second healthiest
relationship existed in love between individuals in general. Upon
conversion, the Christian began to love others with a love given from God; love for others was an evidence of salvation
and in part the manifestation of God himself in and through the Christian's
life empowering and becoming the most significant factor behind all healthy
relationships.
Therefore, the nature of Christian love itself became a substantial
justification for a program that intended to increase a prisoner's ability to
love.
Love as
the Example of Jesus Christ
The life of Jesus
Christ expressed the greatest form of love, and his life became the model for
Christians in how they ought to express love.
Christians have been encouraged to strive for growth into the likeness
of Christ.
Specific
Examples of Love's Expression
The writers of the
Bible have given many examples of love that Christians ought to emulate. Some specific actions were to "look
after orphans and widows" and to avoid actions such as murder and
adultery. Others
were "go and make disciples" and "devote yourselves to
prayer." In chapter
13 of 1 Corinthians, Paul wrote about many actions of love as well as many
actions that work against love.
Throughout the New Testament most of the work of the disciples and
apostles of Christ implied love. All of
the biblical examples and actions of love were interpersonal and meant to
foster positive relationships between persons.
Therefore, any program that would contribute to helping a person love in
a biblical manner would be justified.
High
Aspirations of the Church
From the above, the
living of the Christian life was essentially the expression of love for God and
others. As Christians live on the
earth, they are encouraged to develop several habits that strive towards high
aspirations in character and in conduct toward God and their fellow humankind. Those high aspirations and the struggle to
ascend to those aspirations have been divided into various kinds of Christian
struggles: namely, the struggle with
sin, the efforts and struggles in peacemaking, the developing of discipline in discipleship, the development of a fervency in prayer, and loving God and each other.
Connected with the
high aspirations of the church, the writers of the Bible maintained many high
and ideal character traits and principles that should guide the Christian in
social interactions. Some of the
virtuous character traits were explained in the Sermon on the Mount in chapters
5-7 of Matthew: meekness,
righteousness, mercy, purity, peacemaking, tolerance, and generosity. Other high principles were: be an example (2 Cor. 4:20); do to others as you would have them do to
you (Lk. 6:31); and respect the weaker
brother's conscience (1 Cor. 8:9‑13).
All of these have been classic examples and expressions of how a
Christian ought to express love.
Therefore, a helping skills program designed to enhance the quality and
virtuous character of a prisoner's love would be justified.
Responsibilities
of the Church
Overview
Within the prison,
many interpersonal relationships are maintained among several distinct groups
of people: each other, their families,
staff, and volunteers. With regard to
prisoners helping others, five areas were considered that indicated some of the
responsibilities of the church within prison:
(1) the body of Christ, (2) the ministry of reconciliation, (3) the
charge to remember the imprisoned and mistreated, (4) visiting and caring for
Christ in prison, and (5) the fellowship in suffering. Those five areas indicated that prisoners
who are members of the church in prison have an obligation to help their fellow
prisoners and others. A helping skills
program became justified in that the program was designed to help prisoners do
better what they were biblically obligated to do.
Body of
Christ
In 1 Cor.
12:12-31, Paul used an analogy to show how Christians make up the body of
Christ and need each other. Christians
needed each other so much, said Paul, that "if one part suffers, every
part suffers with it" (12:26).
Therefore, just as the freeworld Christian suffered with those
Christians in prison, likewise a Christian prisoner suffered with his fellow
prisoners as well as suffered with freeworld Christians in their
struggles. The Christian prisoner's own
love fostered within him or herself a desire to help others.
Ministry
of Reconciliation
In 2 Cor.
5:11-21, Paul wrote that all Christians should participate in the ministry of
reconciliation. Any person could become
a "new creation" in Christ (v. 17).
Once reconciled to God and a new creation, that person became Christ's
ambassador "as though God were making his appeal through us" (v.
20). Likewise, once reconciled, the
prisoner became God's emissary to other persons.
Charge
to Remember the Imprisoned and Mistreated
In Heb. 13:3, the
writer of Hebrews said, "Remember those in prison as if you were their
fellow prisoners, and those who are mistreated as if you yourselves were
suffering." The level of
obligation was stated in an empathic framework: Christians ought to minister to those in prison and to those who
are mistreated in a manner equal to the ministry those Christians would want
for themselves in similar circumstances. The
obligation of Heb. 13:3 applied to all Christians, whether prisoners or
freeworld persons, for the object of ministry was the suffering person. The empathic framework of that passage
included Christian prisoners who may find themselves in a position to minister
or to help a needy person. The needy
person could be found in any of several categories of persons including fellow
prisoners, prison staff persons, prison volunteers or visitors, family
visitors, and even a similar variety of persons in the freeworld.
Visiting
and Caring for Christ in Prison
In Mt. 25:31-46, Jesus
explained the coming of the Son of Man and the subsequent separation of the
sheep from the goats. In the passage,
Jesus stated several criteria for inclusion among the sheep, one of which was,
"I was in prison and you came to visit me" (v. 36). The context of this passage included the
hungry, the needy, and the stranger.
Since Christian prisoners frequently encountered many needy people, the
application of Mt. 25:31-46 included an obligation for the church in prison to
help the hungry, the needy, and the stranger.
From a prisoner's perspective, the needy person could be a fellow
prisoner, a family visitor, or a staff person.
The stranger could be a new prisoner on the wing or a pen-pal. By extending the prisoner's ministerial
reach through literature, the needy or stranger could be the beneficiary of a
prisoner's ministry through publication.
Fellowship
in Suffering
In 2 Cor. 1:3-7, Paul
claimed at least three connections between his sufferings and the availability
of comfort. First, Paul said that God
comforted him and his companions so that they could comfort others in trouble
(v. 4). Second, Paul said that his
suffering and his comfort were for the readers' comfort (vv. 5-6). Third, Paul made the connection that
"as you share in our sufferings, so also you share in our comfort"
(v. 7). The suffering of the Christian
and God's comfort of the suffering Christian were both resources to the helper
in the helper's ability to comfort others.
Therefore, in the Christian prisoner's unique fellowship of suffering
with other prisoners and as a prionser adopted the attitude of Christ, a
Christian prisoner's suffering would make him more empathic to any suffering
person‑‑incarcerated or free.
With regard to love,
empathy, and the general ability to help others who were suffering, all of the
five areas of the responsibilities of the church explained above applied to all
Christians. Because of the prisoner's
suffering and God's comfort, the Christian prisoner has been enabled beyond his
or her normal abilities to help other suffering people, free or incarcerated. Tying all of the areas together, only a prisoner
with similar feelings and sufferings could fully understand the suffering of a
fellow prisoner; therefore, a Christian
prisoner has been given an unique injunction to minister to a fellow prisoner.
Prison
Ministry in the New Testament
Overview
The writers of the New
Testament recorded the imprisonment of many Christians. If "ministry" can be defined as
basically the communication of spiritual things to God and among mankind,
prison ministry in the New Testament may be seen in three forms: (1) prisoner to prisoner, (2) prisoner to
the freeworld, and (3) freeworld to the prisoner. Because
the project goals focused on prisoners, only the first two were explained. The examples of prison ministry set a
precedent for Christian prisoners to follow;
therefore, the precedent became a justification for a program designed
to help prisoners relate better to each other.
Prisoner
to Prisoner
Paul gave several
indications of a fellowship among his fellow prisoners. In Acts 16:25, Paul and Silas prayed and sang; others listened. In Phil. 4:22, Paul offered greetings from himself and from those
"who belong to Caesar's household."
In Col. 4:7-15, Paul mentioned several fellow prisoners.
Jesus ministered to
his fellow prisoner from the cross. In
Lk. 23:42-43, one thief asked to be remembered in the kingdom of God. Jesus turned to him and said, "Today
you will be with me in paradise" (v. 43).
Prisoner
to the Freeworld
The writers of the New
Testament recorded several different kinds of ministry by a prisoner to the
freeworld. In Mt. 11:1-20 and Lk.
7:18-35, the communications between the imprisoned John the Baptist and his
disciples implied John's continued ministry to his freeworld disciples.
Paul and others did
much ministry from prison to freeworld persons. In Acts 16:16-40, Paul and Silas ministered to the jailer and his
household. In Phil. 1:12-30, Paul
ministered to the Philippian church with specific concern for their pain over
his imprisonment. In Acts 28:16-31,
while Paul was a prisoner he held meetings and ministered to many for two
years.
Not only did Paul
minister from prison, but he extended his ministry through others. If Tychicus was the bearer of the letters to
both the Ephesians and Colossians, then he helped extend Paul's ministry from
prison. Furthermore, Paul said that
Tychicus was sent with news of Paul's welfare (Col. 4:7; Eph. 6:21) and that Onesimus would be
accompanying Tychicus (Col. 4:9).
Several New Testament
books were written from prison or prison-like circumstances. The Apostle John received the vision of the
book of Revelation while exiled on the island of Patmos (Rev. 1:1-11). Though imprisoned many times, from prison in Rome Paul wrote the books of
Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, Philemon, and 2 Timothy.
Historical Rationale
"Programming"
has been a broad term that has been used in reference to the efforts to
educate, inspire, provide skills, and foster personal growth in the lives of
prisoners. Secular efforts included
many programs: reading, writing, math,
and vocational skills; drug abuse,
sexual disorders, and other addictive disorders treatment; classes in esteem, anger management, and
psychotherapy; and drawing, music
therapy, and even basket weaving.
Religious programming efforts included some of those mentioned above as
well as spiritually-based educational programs such as literacy training and
substance abuse treatment. Many other
religious programs have focused on other areas of life such as marriage and
family communication, anger management, parenting, grief, addictions, and other
interpersonal and intrapersonal growth issues.
But the majority of religious programming has been focused on religious
worship services, discipleship training, and the multitude of spiritual growth
issues.
A survey of three
areas of prison programming indicated support for a historical rationale for an
empathic helping skills program. Those
areas were: (1) origin of programming
in American prison reform, (2) the recent secular reforms and programming in
Texas, and (3) the struggle and the future of prison chaplaincy.
Origin
of Programming in American Prison Reform
Overview
Between the early
1800s and the 1970s, a gradual shift in American penal philosophy took
place. The idea of reforming a prisoner
through harsh and brutal confinement began to be subordinated to a more humane
understanding of the basic needs of persons.
This reform resulted in a great increase in prison programming in the
1950s and 1960s. Though the debate over
program effectiveness continued through the 1970s and 1980s, the general
consensus in the 1990s was that programs were needed. These developments were explained in two subsections: (1) the development of American prison
reform and programming, and (2) how general programming fared.
American
Prison Reform and Programming
In the United States,
the "penitentiary" began with an intention to reform criminal
behavior. Reforming the criminal came
to entail control, isolation, and brutality with the purpose of changing
behavior. A convicted felon was sent to
prison to be "punished" but also to be "corrected." This idea was so novel that early nineteenth
century prison reformers came to the United States from around the world "to
study that American invention, the penitentiary."
Brutality came to be
seen as unduly cruel in the twentieth century, and serious efforts to remove
the brutality of prison life began in the 1920s and 1930s. When the National Commission on Law
Observance and Enforcement met in 1930, it reported that administrators needed
to discover "ways and means sharply to modify" correctional
institutions.
Along with these
reform efforts, many were attempting to understand prison life itself and the
effects of prison life on prisoners.
Writing in 1940, Donald Clemmer was one of the first to describe the
psychological effects of prison life.
When prisoners adapted to prison life they began surrendering their
self-esteem and initiative to a dependency upon the system. Clemmer originated the term
"prisonization" to describe this effect.
To make matters worse,
the prison system itself seemed to foster prisonization. Such prisoners became models in the eyes of
prison managers, which made it all the more difficult for the prisoner to
resist prisonization.
Subsequently, when prisonization took place, the prisonized had greater
difficulties upon release.
Regarding the
brutality of prison and prisonization in general, only a few concerns were made
public before 1950. Most
concerns went unheard. Actual reform
did not begin until after World War II.
Karl Menninger
investigated and chronicled his findings about prisoners in the 1960s. Well beyond Clemmer, Menninger's efforts
helped clarify the basic needs of the human being in prison. He became influential in addressing the need
for reform.
In the early 1970s,
Hans Toch began an intensive study of prisoners. Because he had interviewed over 600 prisoners representing a
sampling of 94% to 97% of the national prison population, Toch was able to give
several credible generalizations about the specific problems and needs of
prisoners. The result was the first
detailed classification of several kinds of prisoner's personal
difficulties. Toch identified several
themes of negative or dysfunctional thought processes. Under a theme of a negative self-assessment,
Toch described characteristics such as self-deactivation, self-sentencing,
self-retaliation, fate avoidance, self-linking, and self-certification. Under a
theme of impulse control, Toch described characteristics of self-alienation,
self-release, self-escape, self-preservation, and self-intervention.
These and other
investigations resulted in more official attention. Prisoners were beginning to be seen as human beings with
problems, and programming increased to address these problems. As one example, the percentage of American
correctional institutions using group therapy rose from 35% in 1950 to 79% in
1966.
The 1960s became a
decade of change. A trend toward
de-institutionalization gathered momentum, and top administrators became more
concerned for how the institutions affected a prisoner's post-release
adjustment. In 1967, the President's
Commission on Law Enforcement reported,
For a great many offenders corrections do not correct. Indeed, experts are increasingly coming to
feel that the conditions under which many offenders are handled, particularly
in institutions, are often a positive detriment to rehabilitation.
One response was more programming for prisoners and for
those released. In 1973 the National
Advisory Commission proposed a moratorium on prison construction and a
continuation of the trend away from "confining people in
institutions" and a move "toward supervising them in the
community."
How
General Programming Fared
Many investigators
began questioning the effectiveness of programming. In a 1974, Lipton, Martinson, and Wilks evaluated 231 studies of
inmate treatment programs. They found
that nothing worked. Their conclusion
was that one in three returned to crime no matter whether the convicted were
incarcerated or on probation, whether given psychotherapy, group counseling,
job training, or no assistance at all. Based
upon this report some programs were curtailed, and both positive and negative
evaluations of the report ensued.
A steady yet slow
reform in penal philosophy was taking place.
Programming became more important than brutality as a force to change
criminal behavior. At the same time,
more problems began to complicate and thus impede reform efforts. A few of these problems were overcrowding,
increasing rates of recidivism, and longer sentences; the problems made "already intolerable living conditions
even worse." One
indication on how fast the complication was ensuing was the spiraling national
prison population which rose from 100,000 in 1969 to over 600,000 in 1987.
In the 1980s,
researchers continued to debate the effectiveness of programs, and several
researchers found that most programming was ineffective. In 1986 Genevie, Margolies, and Muhlin
echoed Lipton and colleagues in saying that nothing worked. Also in
1986, Robert Homant completed a follow-up of his 1976 study. Contrary to his expectations, Homant found
no evidence that group therapy contributed to post-release adjustment. Furthermore, Homant found a "slight
trend for good institutional adjustment to be associated with poor
post-release adjustment [emphases his]."
On the contrary, many
researchers reported that much programming was effective. Many
theorized that successful programming must address the prisoners' self-concepts
and behavioral skills. In 1981 at least
two separate but related theories were offered regarding the effects of prison
life in relation to post-release adjustment.
Thomas and Peterson suggested that prisonization resulted from in
identity or self-concept that would necessarily need to be addressed.
Similarly, Homer identified what he called a "self-mortifying"
process where rather predictable changes occur in the direction of either
prisonization or a criminal self-image.
He concluded that reversing both of these influences would be necessary
to reduce recidivism.
Others supported the
need to address social skills.
Wiederlanders attempted to dispel some myths about the employment
problems of young offenders. The
problem was not simply finding jobs.
Their greatest need was learning social skills such as how to tolerate
co-workers and endure mundane and unexciting jobs. Marshall,
Turner, and Barbaree found that training prisoners in life skills raised
self-esteem, improved attitudes towards education, increased empathy, and
decreased psychopathy.
In 1984 Robert Homant
presented the results of a survey of employment programs. The results indicated two common
denominators of effectiveness that could bring about successful post-release
adjustment: reversing prisonization and
changing self-esteem. Looking ahead
Homant suggested what the contents of an ideal program might seek to
accomplish:
1. Enhance a skill connected to social
adjustment, such as assertiveness,
anger control, or vocational-educational training;
2. Minimize or reverse prisonization; and
3. Be
sensitive to the offender's self-esteem, not necessarily aiming to raise it, at
least until prisonization has been addressed.
Similar to Homant, several theorists have continued to
emphasize the need for developing the social skills of prisoners related to
post-release adjustment.
Others have focused on
decreasing prison violence, underscoring the above and emphasizing the need for
programs that help prisoners get along in prison. For example, in 1993 Kevin Wright presented the results of a
study on disruptive behavior in ten prisons.
The most significant variable for in-prison adaptation and the reduction
of disruptive behavior was institutional support for self-advancement and
self-improvement.
In the 1990s, a
consensus emerged indicating a broad support for programming. In 1996, Russ Immarigeon presented several
theorists that supported the need for programming that would address a broad
spectrum of prisoner needs with an emphasis on social skills. For a
perspective from prison wardens, Tim Flanagan and colleagues sent
questionnaires to 823 wardens across the nation. With 78% reporting, 641 prison wardens and superintendents
indicated that educational and recreational programs "soak up idle
time," "provide constructive activities," and "control
misbehavior." The
wardens also said they had doubts about get-tough policies that take away some
programs and services.
Therefore, a rationale
for the implementation of a helping skills program existed based upon American
prison reform. First, such a program
fell within the continuity of the reform in programming itself. Second, such a program was consistent with
what has been documented as needful kinds of programming for prisoners.
Recent
Secular Reforms and Programming in Texas
Overview
Texas followed the
national trend towards a more humane intention regarding incarceration, but the
theory did not transform into practice quickly. The overall goal has been to safely confine and reform a prisoner
in order that Texas citizens would remain safe and that the offender would
become a productive citizen and not return to prison. One major contributing force to changing criminal behavior has
been and continues to be programming.
The above developments were broken down into two subsections: (1) the recent secular reforms in Texas and
(2) the recent programming development in Texas.
Recent
Secular Reforms in Texas
The philosophy and the
intent of incarceration began to change throughout the 1970s and 1980s in Texas
as in the rest of the nation. However,
the actual implementation of that change was slow and reluctant. Even as late as 1980 predatory inmates were
still free to do as they pleased in the living areas. The victims of predators could "be threatened, extorted,
beaten, or raped," and officer brutality persisted with many credible
records of "inmates being unreasonably . . . beaten with fists
and clubs."
The landmark court
ruling in Ruiz v. Estelle forced Texas prison administrators to initiate
reforms in 1980. This
placed the Texas Department of Corrections (TDC, as it was then known) under
federal scrutiny, and sanctions were imposed that were not lifted until 1994.
The sanctions of Ruiz
v. Estelle standardized the TDC.
Prisoners received more rights, including a grievance process and
unambiguous rules. Correctional
managers were prevented from using inmates known as "building tenders"
to control and punish other inmates.
Overcrowding and
increasing recidivism affected Texas like the rest of the nation. In the past three years the Texas inmate
population more than doubled to a current size of about 140,000 inmates, with
the highest incarceration rate of all states, 809 per 100,000. Tony
Fabelo extrapolated that if current projections remain the Texas prison system
will complete the construction of 151,814 prison beds by the end of August
1998. That
would make the Texas prison system the largest among "all Western
countries."
Despite the changes
and challenges, the Texas Department of Criminal Justice (TDCJ, as it is now
known) has maintained a philosophy consistent with the national emphasis to
change criminal behavior through programming.
The need to socialize prisoners was reflected in the mission statement
of the department: "to provide
public safety, promote positive change in behavior, and reintegrate offenders
into society." Both
former chairman and current member of the TDCJ board Carol Vance and former
executive director Andy Collins have affirmed the dedication of the staff to
the department's mission. Even
though Carol Vance moved from chairman to board member and a new director has
assumed leadership, the mission statement has remained the same. Wayne Scott, the new executive director,
affirmed the mission and direction of the agency saying,
Education is important, but it's more than that. People's faith, training and vocational
skills, education, anger management, stress management, interpersonal
skills. All of those things go into
making someone successful. We have
plans on
the drawing board . . . to put programs in place . . .
tailored to individual need.
Recent
Programming Development in Texas
TDCJ has maintained a
steady focus of support for programming.
The most recent and significant development in Texas correctional
programs was the establishment of the office of volunteer coordination in
1994. That brought volunteer
programming into the mainstream of department planning, and that continued the
emphasis on increasing programming. The
office of volunteer coordination was tasked with ensuring that volunteer
activities such as recruitment, training, and the establishment of new services
were consistent from division to division.
Though the great preponderance of volunteers were supervised in
chaplaincy programs, the office was designed to help coordinate volunteer
activities among the several divisions including pardons and paroles, the
Windham School District, and the substance abuse treatment programs.
Under Governor Ann
Richards, substance abuse treatment programs increased dramatically only to be
curtailed in 1995 by Governor George Bush.
Operation Kick-It was one example of a successful substance abuse
program. Since 1970, a panel of
volunteer prisoners traveled the state and described former drug-related
activities in an effort to deter young people from drug abuse. In 1994, Scott, Hawkins, and Farnsworth
reported on the recidivism rate of 179 prisoners who had participated in the
program. Only 20% of the prisoners
involved in the program returned to prison, but 66% of the matched control
group returned. They attributed the
program's success to how participation raised the inmate's self-esteem and
helped sensitize the inmate to confront and judge his own behavior.
The Windham School
District has been charged with supplying education to Texas prisoners, and the
great preponderance of Texas' secular prison programming was supplied under the
auspices of that school district. The
programming included educational, vocational, and socialization programs. In reflecting on the challenges facing
Windham, the new institutional division director Gary Johnson said Windham's
charge was "to make a difference in the lives of others by enriching them
and attempting to help them discover their potential. . . . One
person can make a difference to one person."
Therefore, a rationale
for the implementation of a helping skills program existed based upon prison
reform in Texas. Both the recent reform
in Texas as well as the recent development of programming in Texas indicated
that a Christian helping skills program would be compatible not only with
Texas' secular efforts but also with the mission of the agency as a whole.
Struggle
and Future of Prison Chaplaincy
Overview
Chaplaincy efforts
have been viewed differently over the years.
At first all issues of prisoner well-being were the purview of the
chaplain. Then reformers began to
subordinate chaplaincy programs to secular educational and psychotherapeutic
efforts. Over the last decade, a more
holistic understanding about care giving came into being, and increasingly
chaplaincy efforts were being seen as important contributions to prisoner
reform. The above developments were
broken down into three subsections: (1)
the struggle of American prison chaplaincy, (2) validating chaplaincy efforts,
and (3) the future of Texas prison chaplaincy.
Struggle
of American Prison Chaplaincy
Through the nineteenth
century, almost all programming came from prison chaplaincy ministries. The libraries were sponsored by chaplains,
and most of the library books were religious. Until the
middle of the twentieth century, chaplains had the potential to be involved
with most aspects of a prisoner's life including education, moral reform, and
family liaison.
Chaplaincy efforts
came into conflict with social scientists shortly before World War II. Secular reformers began to focus on prison
rehabilitation outside of a theological framework. Sanford Bates said,
The prison school had been taken over by trained educationalists. Family contacts were handled by the social
workers and the libraries staffed by trained librarians. Apparently there was nothing else but
religion for the chaplain to busy himself about, and that could be done on
Sunday in an hour or two.
After World War II,
Michael Wolff observed that the developing welfare state diminished some of the
church's opportunity to provide for the needs of people including
prisoners. Reflecting on those
developments, Wolff said that the chaplain's task came to be "limited to
providing for the spiritual welfare of those in his charge; and even here the line between the
medico-psychiatric treatment and religious or spiritual healing is often
difficult to detect."
The most significant
development affecting American prison chaplaincy to date came when congress
passed the Religious Freedom Restoration Act of 1993 (RFRA). During
the discussions over the scope of RFRA, many persons debated just how much
religious freedom and programming should be allowed to prisoners. Numerous attorneys general from around the
country argued for and against the exclusion of prisoners from the requirements
of RFRA.
Regardless, the passage of RFRA did not exclude prisoners. Religion in prison became as protected as
freeworld religion with respect to government intervention, the only exceptions
being when a governing authority had justifiable and compelling reasons. And if such compelling reasons surfaced,
only the least restrictive method of limitation was sanctioned.
Validating
Chaplaincy Efforts
Despite an officially
diminished role in some prisons or organizational ambiguity regarding the role
of prison chaplains, chaplains remained influential. For example, in 1964 the criminologist Daniel Glaser found that
among those inmates in his study who were successful upon release, about
one-sixth credited the chaplain with being the major influence in their
reformation. Glaser said inmates were
frequently "in a mood which makes them amenable to conversion to a new
conception of spiritual meaning in their lives."
Furthermore, Glaser observed that chaplains positively impacted the
inmates and the total facility in a far greater proportion than did other
staff, even though chaplains were a tiny fraction of the total prison staff.
No scientific studies
were found in a bibliographic search for studies of chaplaincy efforts during
the 1970s and 1980s. A few scholarly
works on correctional practice and theory mentioned religious efforts: some were favorable and others were
unfavorable.
In an intensive
search, only one program was found that was considered able to equip prisoners
to become better helpers. Vance Drum
directed a D.Min. program for training prisoners as peer counselors in the
maximum security Eastham State Prison in Lovelady, Texas. Drum reported that the program made a
statistically significant effect on the group trained, increasing their
understanding and skills.
Despite a dearth of
studies, David Duncombe offered a clinical observation in which he suggested
eight key areas that an effective prison chaplaincy programming would need to
address.
1. The problem of shame
2. The problem of self-deception
3. Lack of vision
4. Lack of realistic life plans
5. Shaky religious foundations
6. Scarcity of a pastoral presence
7. Lack of prophetic voice
8. Few opportunities for meaningful
human service
Duncombe related his experiences and observations as a
prisoner in a county detention center.
His suggestions were based upon his extensive experience as an
institutional chaplain for thirty-five years and upon his experience as a
clinical pastoral education supervisor.
Looking toward the
future of prison chaplaincy in general, one work by a prison chaplain could
have an impact on how correctional management perceives the effectiveness of
prison chaplaincy. Richard Shaw
reported a landmark study on prison chaplains, the chaplain's environment, and
the stresses upon chaplains. His work
could provide a increased understanding of the complex relationships involved
in effective chaplaincy service, especially with regard to staff relationships
and staffing requirements.
Future
of Texas Chaplaincy
For the fiscal year of 1995, the Texas state prison chaplaincy office
reported its cumulative efforts in an executive summary. The state chaplaincy department held 70,000
services with a total attendance for the year of 3,000,000. There were 4,687 approved volunteers and
3,616 special volunteers, and both of those together made 58,331 visits to
prison. There were 20,000 mentor or
one-on-one visits between a freeworld volunteer and a prisoner. From the state level, the administrator's
office encourages growth in both the quality and number of chaplaincy programs.
The Voyager Program was most the recent statewide chaplaincy effort and
was a team effort with the Windham School District. Half of the program curriculum used by the chaplaincy department
was a duplication of Windham's total Changes Program. The latter half of the Voyager Program was additional material
that was spiritually based and flexible enough to accommodate different
religions. The Voyager Program was
designed to help prisoners explore personal, spiritual, and interpersonal
growth issues utilizing a workbook and group dynamics under the guidance of a
facilitator.
Throughout the Texas system, chaplains have been providing religious
programming and have been training volunteers to provide programming on the
unit level. The list of Texas
ministries offering help to prisons has been increasing monthly. The project director kept an ongoing file of
ministries that have solicited his office in the past three years, currently
listing upwards of fifty different ministries.
To help increase
chaplaincy programming throughout Texas, several organizations have started to
help build chapels in prisons without chapels.
Chapel Life Ministries (CLM) in Woodville, Texas, has completed
architectural plans, and CLM has been submitting these plans to TDCJ engineers
for evaluation of a chapel at the Gib Lewis Prison. Another organization, Chapels of Hope, has been attempting to
raise over 25 million dollars in an effort to help build chapels in all of the
state prisons that do not already have a chapel or their own chapel building
project. All of the projects have been
supported by the current TDCJ executive director, Wayne Scott, who said,
"I give my full support and the support of TDCJ to those noble efforts to
construct chapels throughout Texas."
Even though budgeting
cuts have decreased some services to inmates as mentioned below in the practical
rationale, the efforts to draw upon the volunteer community have
increased. Governor George Bush
recently issued a memorandum that in part said:
Thankfully, there is a grassroots effort in Texas to minister to those
who are incarcerated and their families.
The goal is to reduce the recidivism rate. There needs to be an environment in Texas that fosters efforts by
faith-based and other service organizations to meet the needs of Texans in
crisis. Government . . .
cannot put hope in our hearts or a sense of purpose in our
lives. . . . Only
faith can do that.
Within that memorandum, Governor Bush proclaimed October
1996 as Criminal Justice Ministry Awareness Month and urged appropriate
recognition.
Practical
Rationale
Three practical
considerations were found to support a rationale for a helping skills
program. Those considerations
were: (1) the inhibitions within a
hostile environment, (2) the institutional environment, and (3) the unique
qualifications of the chaplaincy department.
Inhibitions
within a Hostile Environment
Overview
At least three
inhibitions have impeded a prisoner's ability to relate healthily and express
love. Those inhibitions were: (1) a normal person's inhibitions, (2) the
additional inhibitions within a prison, and (3) the prisoner's own background
and social grooming.
Normal
Person's Inhibitions
Many attitudes have
inhibited a normal person's ability to relate and express love: fear of self-disclosure, fear of the
recipient's rejection, a lack of skills, and others. Most
normal people have experienced many kinds of inhibitions to their ability to
relate, and one common key to growth in the ability to relate has been training
in the skills of relating.
Additional
Inhibitions within a Prison
In addition to the
normal fears, other inhibitions have existed in prison: distrust, social hostility, and sexual
aberrations. In a male
prison any behavior construed as weak or effeminate could invite abuse,
cursing, manipulation, or exploitation.
As seen in the
theological rationale, a Christian prisoner has been given an inherent love for
others, but any expression of love is inhibited by a prisoner's natural fear
and even further by the interpersonally hostile environment of prison. Such a prisoner is forced to make important
decisions about how his love will be expressed in such an environment.
Prisoner's
Own Background and Social Grooming
The prisoner's
background itself usually inhibited love's expression. A large number of prisoners came from a
hostile or otherwise dysfunctional background.
A Christian prisoner's own background then became a challenge to
overcome. In addition to normal fears
and environmental inhibitions, many prisoners have arrived in prison with prior
dysfunctions or cultivated hostilities arising from their background which
further mitigates against growth and the development of interpersonal skills.
The three inhibitions
mentioned above indicated some of the severe needs and challenges facing almost
any prisoner's development of social skills.
In the light of those inhibitions and needs, a practical rationale was
seen for a helping skills program, especially a program that would help
prisoners be patient, learn how to listen, and learn how to attend to the needs
of others. If a prisoner improved his
relationship skills and ability to express love, those skills could carry over
to other places in the institution as well as to the prisoner's own family
life. Those skills could become a
significant factor in helping adjustment after release, extending the benefits
of positive relations well beyond the confines of the prison.
Social
Concerns of the Institutional Environment
Overview
Three social concerns
of the institutional environment were identified that support the need for a
helping skills program. Those concerns
were: (1) the reduction in non-security
staff, (2) the highly structured nature of unit operations, and (3) the
readiness of a group of Christian inmates to participate in a helping skills
program.
Reduction
in Non-Security Staff
Recent budget cuts
have forced major restructuring at the Gib Lewis Prison. Prison classification managers and substance
abuse counselors have been reduced. As
a result, the non-security persons to whom inmates could go to about their
confinement, release, and family struggles were reduced. More so now than in the past, inmates have
been forced to look to each other for emotional support, which accents further
the need for a helping skills program.
Highly
Structured Nature of Unit Operations
The highly structured
environment of the prison was maintained through routine and restricted
activity. Inmates lived and worked
within the space of a few acres for many years. Every inmate had continual interaction with the same people day
after day, and many inmates had continual interaction all of their waking hours
with a small number of people, over an extended period of time and often in an
interpersonally intense atmosphere. In
addition to those intensities, the paramilitary structure of the restricted
environment limited further outlets for emotional release. In such an environment, any kind of
improvement in social skills and helping skills would be profitable to those
willing to learn such skills.
Readiness
of a Group of Christian Inmates
A core group of enthusiastic
Christian inmates has supported almost every Christian activity. A number of those men would participate in a
Christian helping skills program, for many of them have been helping and
providing ministry in their own way. At
the Gib Lewis Prison many Christian prisoners were ready to help and ready to
learn how to become better helpers.
Unique
Role of the Prison Chaplaincy Department
Overview
Four aspects of the
unique role of the prison chaplaincy department were identified that support
the need for a chaplaincy department helping skills program. Those aspects were (1) the inherently
helping role of the chaplaincy department, (2) the ability to access the best
of both the religious and secular worlds, (3) the multiplying benefits of a
prisoner helping skills program, and (4) the fact that little has been done.
Inherently
Helping Role of the Chaplaincy Department
Chaplains have
provided a kind of programming that is expected and valued without necessarily
being quantifiable. The reason that few
studies on chaplaincy efforts have been done may have been because of a
widespread belief in the inherent value of religion by the adherents of
religion and the similar widespread disbelief by those in the scientific
community who do not value religion.
Nevertheless, the need to work on inmate self-esteem, social skills, and
similar personal development needs have been validated repeatedly. Historically, the chaplaincy department has
been a helping department, making it specially suited to provide a helping
skills training program.
Ability
to Access the Best of Religious and Secular
The chaplaincy
department has the ability to access the special knowledge and professional
skills of both the religious and secular worlds. All secular efforts to rehabilitate have focused on changing the
life of the offender. The chaplaincy
department has sought not only to change and enrich the life of the offender,
but also has sought to provide guidance in spiritual issues and in ultimate
values. Therefore, enriching religious
values and fostering Christian principles with biblically sound secular helping
skills would not only complement the chaplaincy agenda but would access and
even forward the best of both worlds, religious and secular.
Multiplying
Benefits of the Program
Given the environment,
a lot of imprisoned men have concluded that they want to improve, find worth,
help themselves, or otherwise gain self-esteem. Given the desire for self-improvement, Christian prisoners have been
given the ability to love and have been impelled by their compassion to help
other prisoners. Therefore, within the
chaplaincy department's programs, prisoners have indicated their motivation to
help and to learn how to help others.
If a few Christian men
improve their ability to relate healthily, the interpersonal benefits would
flow to everyone with whom those prisoners associated. Therefore, given the environment and the
nature of some of the Christian men in that environment, multiplying benefits
seemed to be built into such a chaplaincy program designed to help prisoners
improve the helping skills they were already motivated and struggling to use.
Fact
that Little Has Been Done on Program Problems
From the historical
data supplied above in the historical rationale, little has been done to help
prisoners become more proficient helpers.
Only one reference combining Christian and secular principles was found. The fact
alone that little has been done in the area of the proposed chaplaincy program
indicated a need to proceed further in the exploration of the effectiveness of
programs designed to help prisoners become helpers.
In all of the many
criminal justice efforts, the unique role of the chaplaincy department has just
begun to be seen, asserted, and validated in the overall efforts to deter
crime, to reduce recidivism, and to rehabilitate offenders. Therefore, because of the near absence of
efforts and validation, a practical rationale for the implementation of a
helping skills program was indicated for a program utilizing both religious and
secular disciplines to help prisoners become better helpers.
Conclusions
on the Three Rationales
Conclusions
on the Theological Rationale
Assuming the inherent
value of love and the possibility and need of growth, the theological rationale
for a helping skills program was justified upon three theological
foundations. Those three foundations
were (1) nature of Christian love, (2) the responsibilities of the church in
prison, and (3) the examples of prison ministry in the New Testament.
If the helping skills
program could help prisoners love more effectively and could help them acquire
or more fully exhibit other Christian virtues, then the first rationale could
be seen in the four areas listed under the nature of Christian love. Those areas were (1) the Christian's
inherent love for others, (2) love as the example of Jesus Christ, (3) specific
examples of love's expression, and (4) the high aspirations of the church.
A second rationale
could be seen in the five listed responsibilities of the church, for those
areas provided a general charge for all Christians to help others whether free
or incarcerated. Those five
responsibilities were (1) the body of Christ, (2) the ministry of
reconciliation, (3) the charge to remember the imprisoned and mistreated, (4)
visiting and caring for Christ in prison, and (5) fellowship in suffering.
A third rationale
could be seen from the two examples of New Testament prison ministry, since
they provided precedents for contemporary prisoners to do the same. Those two examples were (1) prisoner to
prisoner and (2) prisoner to the freeworld.
Conclusions
on the Historical Rationale
A historical rationale
for the helping skills program was seen in the developments of three historical
themes. Those themes were (1) the
origin of programming in American prison reform, (2) the recent secular reform
and programming in Texas, and (3) the struggle and the future of prison
chaplaincy.
Within the theme of
the origin of programming in American prison reform, two characteristics of
that reform were examined and found relevant in the support of a helping skills
program. One, the general development
of American prison reform and programming increasingly came to focus on the
personal and social development of the prisoner. Two, though programming has been subject to much conflict
throughout the decades, a consensus developed that favors programming which
aids the personal and social growth of prisoners. Therefore, the history of program development and the positive
support of most programming around the country supported a rationale for a
helping skills program.
Within the theme of
recent secular reform and programming in Texas, two characteristics of that
reform were examined and found relevant in the support of a helping skills
program. One, although the recent
secular reform in Texas was slow and forced, in increasing measure TDCJ has
focused upon reforming criminal behavior and reducing recidivism. Two, TDCJ has increased its focus upon
improving educational and other programming through the use of volunteer help,
and most of the programming emphasis has been directed toward changing
prisoners before they were returned to society. Therefore, the increasingly positive emphasis upon reform and
programming in Texas as well as the prison agency's own mission statement
supported a rationale for a helping skills program.
Within the theme of
the struggle and the future of prison chaplaincy, three characteristics of that
struggle were examined and found relevant in the support of a helping skills
program. One, American prison
chaplaincy efforts have struggled for credibility in a secular
environment. However, despite
occasional ambiguity in the chaplain's role, the inherent value of chaplaincy
and therefore religious efforts in general have helped to further religiously
based activities, especially as seen in the passage of RFRA's establishment of
the prisoner's religious freedom. Two,
though only a few studies existed on the effectiveness of chaplaincy efforts
upon prisoner rehabilitation, those studies indicated that chaplains were
influential and that chaplaincy departments have the potential and the
challenge to do more. Three, the future
of prison chaplaincy in Texas has been focused upon increasing both the quality
and the number of all kinds of chaplaincy programs. Therefore, the recent trends in prison chaplaincy efforts in
Texas supported a rationale for a helping skills program.
Conclusions
on the Practical Rationale
A practical rationale
was seen in three considerations. One
consideration was the three forms of inhibition within a hostile
environment. Those inhibitions were (1)
a normal person's inhibitions, (2) the additional inhibitions within a prison,
and (3) the prisoner's own background and social grooming. Those inhibitions reflected great personal
and interpersonal needs. Together, the
inhibitions and resulting needs indicated a practical rationale for a helping
skills program designed to overcome those inhibitions and meet some of those
needs.
The second
consideration was the nature of the Gib Lewis institutional environment which
involved three social concerns. Those
concerns were (1) the reduction in non-security staff, (2) the highly
structured nature of unit operations, and (3) the readiness of a group of
Christian inmates to participate in a helping skills program. Those together indicated not only the need
but also the positive influence of a helping skills program upon the prisoner's
ability to cope interpersonally or grow into a more healthy person.
The third
consideration was the four aspects of the unique role of the chaplaincy
department. Those four aspects were (1)
the inherently helping role of the chaplaincy department, (2) the ability to
access the best of both the religious and secular worlds, (3) the multiplying
benefits of a prisoner helping skills program, and (4) the fact that little has
been done. Those together substantiated
the need for a helping skills program as well as the need for the chaplaincy
department to be the facilitator for the program.
Review
of the Related Literature
The literature
contained only one reference that reported the results of a Christian-based
helping skills program designed to help prisoners to be of help to other
prisoners. In "Training Inmates to
Help as Peer Counselors," Vance Drum reported on a D.Min. project that he
had implemented at the Eastham State Prison in Lovelady, Texas. Drum
integrated some secular helping skills into a program based upon biblical
principles of concern. As a resource to
the development of the proposed program, Drum presented several lesson plans
that contained aids in the use of expressing and reflecting feelings. Each lesson contained a variety of methods
including role plays and lectures.
The following review
was divided into two areas: Christian
helping skills and secular helping skills.
The resources under those two areas were the primary sources used in the
development and implementation of the helping skills program.
On
Christian Helping Skills
The Bible was the
primary source of authority used in the program. The New International Version (NIV) translation of the Bible
provided the sources for the biblical quotes.
A biblical foundation was not only assumed in the actual implementation
but also was maintained through the use of devotions at the beginning of each
of the program sessions. Furthermore,
throughout the program biblical citings and principles were used to undergird
and explicate the foundations of several secular principles. Throughout the program, all of the secular
principles that were used were explained as biblically validated or presented
as though the principles were expositions of a biblical truth. In other words, every helping principle and
every exercise were seen as stemming from either an explicit or implicit
biblical source: the process of
teaching was from the biblical to the secular, not vice versa.
The principal feature
of the entire program, emphasized throughout, was that biblical love provided
the foundation for all of the helping skills.
All of the listening and empathy skills were a significant part of love,
and therefore the skills originated in and proceeded from love.
In Pastoral
Counseling: How Every Pastor Can Help
People to Help Themselves, Seward Hiltner outlined some general principles
in a Christian framework and in a clearly empathic manner. For example, Hiltner stated clear principles
for different aspects of the counseling session: assumptions about pastoral counseling in general, principles for
clarifying the beginning of any session, principles for interacting in an
empathic manner, and ways to affirm normality.
Most of his principles were too abstract to be directly applicable to
the participants of this program, but his theories provided the director with a
theoretical understanding that aided in constructing and explaining the
biblical foundation of the program.
In Pastoral Care in
the Church, C. W. Brister explained many principles that should undergird
the encounters of the pastor of a freeworld church. Several sections provided insight and illustrations on
theological perspectives, the pastoral understanding of persons, and counseling
as a relationship and a process. The
significant contribution to the development of the program was the biblical
foundation Brister laid out and the essential thesis that helping was not a
matter of providing answers so much as helping was a solid and caring
relationship.
In Biblical Themes
for Pastoral Care, William Oglesby, Jr., argued for the superiority of a
generally empathic way of "being" over the unempathic method of
"doing": namely, the manner
of one's caring over the raw techniques of caring. He illustrated his concepts with several case scenarios. He showed how biblical themes like
conformity and rebellion could and should come out of a relationship rather
than be imposed upon it. The
significant contribution to the program was how his perceptions of
"being" over "doing" were an important and even essential
ingredient to the helping process. That
understanding became decisive to the director when attempting to explain the
case scenarios of the program and when attempting to distinguish the various
kinds of alternative "doing" and "being" responses.
In Counseling for
Spiritually Empowered Wholeness: A
Hope-Centered Approach, Howard Clinebell presented wholeness as a continual
and personal process in seven areas of living:
mind, body, relationships, biosphere, work/play,
organizations/institutions, and spiritual life. While not as empathic as the others, he emphasized his agenda
which was to help others reach out for experiences in all of the seven areas of
life within a biblical context. His
seven areas provided a holistic context in which to view and integrate the best
of the secular and sacred in a psychology of human nature. His seven areas were adapted and used in one
segment of the program to help define the complexity of growth and therefore
the necessity to listen well.
In "Counseling
Ministry Training Program: Counseling
Skills," Philip A. Coyle presented a helping skills program for the church
members of the Manley Baptist Church in Morristown, Tennessee. Coyle listed and categorized fifty helping
behaviors, and he contrasted some of these with what a counselor should not
do. In presenting several of the
helping behaviors, he gave many examples that exemplified proper and improper
empathy. Coyle's list and some of his
examples were used in the program.
On
Secular Helping Skills
Three predominant
teachers of secular helping skills were used in the construction of the
program: Robert Carkhuff, Gerard Egan,
and Allen Ivey. In Trainer's Guide
for The Art of Helping VII, Carkhuff and Benoit presented a thorough
program, from setting up chairs to guided discussions and assessments. His model included grouping the helping
skills into four progressive levels:
attending, responding, personalizing, and initiating. All of these were illustrated, and
instructions were given for each lesson plan.
Carkhuff's first two levels and several of his assessment devices were
used in the program portion of the project.
In Student Workbook
for The Art of Helping VII, Carkhuff gave many exercises for each of the
four skill levels. Though the
memorization of his paradigm seemed a little daunting and the paradigm itself not
quite consolidated, the many examples of basic listening provided clear
guidance toward listening with empathy.
Several of the helping scenarios and their alternative responses were
utilized in the program portion of the project.
Egan developed his Interpersonal
Living: A Skills/Contract Approach to
Human-Relations Training in Groups in 1976. Shortly after this work, Egan began to put together the
beginnings of The Skilled Helper: A
Problem-Management Approach to Helping, 5th edition, and the accompanying
manual, Exercises in Helping Skills, 3rd edition. All of those focused on the development of a
contract between the counselor and the client through a three stage model of
counseling (with three phases to each stage):
1st stage, identifying and clarifying the problem situation; 2nd stage, developing new scenarios and
setting goals; and 3rd stage, action or
turning preferred scenarios into reality.
All three works provided many exercises for the development of skills in
each of the three stages.
In Interpersonal
Living, Egan gave many principles and outlines of the basic dynamics of
healthy and unhealthy relationships:
for example, elements of interpersonal style, resistances to
self-disclosure, modes of self-disclosure, feelings difficult to face, and
elements of respect. In this work, Egan
clarified what he called accurate empathy and advanced accurate empathy: the former being the ability to reflect
feeling and content, the latter being the ability to reflect feeling and
content with a new interpretation of meaning for the client. Several portions were adapted to the program
portion of the project.
In Exercises in
Helping Skills, 3rd edition, Egan provided exercises for each stage and
phase of his The Skilled Helper: A
Problem-Management Approach to Helping.
A few of the exercises were utilized and adapted to the program portion
of the project.
In Microcounseling,
Ivey emphasized several specific skills in attending and empathy, though a
majority of the book focused upon validation, contrasting theories, and
instructional methodology. Regarding
the "microcounseling" approach itself, Ivey emphasized a specific
method to train new and student counselors.
Ivey focused his training on the development of one specific counseling
skill at a time in the trainee‑‑hence, "micro"
counseling.
Two other works by
Ivey focused specifically on teaching the two levels of helping skills
presented in Microcounseling:
the first level was presented in Basic Attending Skills, and the
second level was presented in Basic Influencing Skills. Basic attending skills included open
invitations to talk, clarifying, responding, and summarizing. Basic influencing skills included the
ability to direct conversations, confront, issue directives, find logical
consequences, and reframe. Those two
works contained an easy to follow format with exercises. Several principles from Basic Attending
Skills were condensed and adapted for the program portion of the project.
In The Lost Art of
Listening, Michael Nichols focused primarily on the relationships between
family members, yet he identified many principles that were applicable to all
encounters where listening was important.
He detailed why listening was important, how it connected people to each
other, how it broke down barriers, and how the heart of listening was the
struggle to suspend one's own needs.
The focus of the book revolved around the simple thesis that everyone
longs to be understood, and the director used that thesis throughout the
program. In the explanations of
empathy, the director inculcated the thesis that empathy was
"communicating an understanding" to the hurting person.
In Listening
Instruction, Andrew Wolvin and Carolyn Coakley explained thirty-three
specific and simple exercises for improving listening skills. These exercises included an objective, a
description of the exercise, and a small paragraph of instruction. A few of the exercises provided the
essential format for the construction of the exercises and role plays in the
program portion of the project.
In Listening By
Doing: Developing Effective Listening
Skills, Kathleen Galvin detailed the listening process for several specific
types of situations. One section of
that work provided an analysis of persuasion, and another section provided instructions
on listening to feelings. The analysis
was condensed and the instructions were adapted for use in the program portion
of the project.
In Perceptive
Listening, Florence Wolff and colleagues provided a description of the
kinds of listening people do. Different
kinds of situations required different kinds of listening, and strategies were
provided for guidance in doing the required listening. Of special relevance, they explained their
method on how to improve empathic listening, and a few of their explanations
were adapted and presented in the program portion of the project.
In "Empathic: An
Unappreciated Way of Being," Carl Rogers wrote a detailed treatise of
empathy. Rogers defended his construct,
defined empathy, summed up the need, and outlined significant researchers of
empathy. Most relevant to the helping
skills was his short but vivid definition of empathy: it was more like the description of a journey than a concise
explication of a term. Reflecting the
view of many, Lauren Wispe said that Rogers' definition was perhaps the most
complete and insightful description of empathy to date. Rogers'
definition as well as the definitions of others were placed side-by-side in one
segment of the program.
In Empathy: Its Nature and Uses, Robert Katz
provided a description of the four levels of empathy based upon the
developments of Theodor Reik:
identification, incorporation, reverberation, and detachment. Though a bit philosophical and vague at
points, his model presented the need of an oscillation between the levels of
identification and detachment. In a
section of special relevance, he described several ways in which persons could
miss the mark or otherwise use empathy in unhealthy and destructive ways, and a
few of those distortions of empathy were adapted and used for clarification in
the program.
In Empathy: Development, Training, and Consequences,
Arnold Goldstein and Gerald Michaels discussed the developments and methods of
training in empathy, including Carkhuff and Egan. In the beginning, they gave the definitions of empathy by ten
theorists. All of their discussions led
to the formation of a proposed six-stage model for optimal training in
empathy. These stages involved training
in (1) readiness, (2) perceptual accuracy, (3) affective reverberation, (4)
cognitive analysis, (5) empathic communication, and (6) transfer and
maintenance. Several of the definitions
for empathy were used, and the director gained a conceptual understanding of
the progressive nature of empathy training.
In Empathy and Its
Development, Nancy Eisenberg and Janet Strayer brought many collaborators
together. The first article by
Eisenberg and Strayer provided some distinctions among the similar and basic
concepts of empathy, sympathy, distress, and projection. Another article by Lauren Wispe provided a
short history of the concept of empathy.
Those two articles were cogent and provided concise details that‑‑with
Rogers‑‑helped to distinguish and define the word
"empathy" itself and aided in the director's overall understanding of
the concept and practice of empathy.
CHAPTER 2
DESCRIPTION OF
THE PROJECT
Overview
The description of the
project was broken down into three stages according to the three
subproblems. The three stages
were: (1) the development of the
program, (2) the enlistment of inmates, and (3) the implementation of the
program.
Development
of the Program
Overview
The development of the
program included three phases up to the time of enlistment. The three phases were: (1) the formation of the project focus, (2)
the development of the lessons, and (3) the development of the instructional
aids.
Formation
of the Project Focus
The development of the
program began with the search for a need.
The greatest need in the Lewis Prison at the time seemed to be the need
for a resource that would enable the prisoners in our Christian congregation to
become better helpers. Opportunities
for empathy abounded, but few understood, much less valued it. Much of the time, listening and empathy
skills were viewed as weakness.
A broad review of the
literature indicated that the scope of the project would have to be limited to
a small segment of the available helping skills. A few concepts were jettisoned at the beginning. The unit warden rejected any kind of
empowerment that would give inmates a reason to think they would be able to
carry the label of counselors, therefore, "counselor" training and
"crisis intervention" training were rejected. Actual psychotherapy and group therapy did
not seem very appropriate because of the time limits imposed upon the
program.
As the review of
related literature in chapter 1 indicated, Egan, Carkhuff, and Ivey became the
significant resources in the development of the helping skills program. They pioneered much of the helping skills
training. However, even their programs
were deemed too daunting for the prisoners, for most of the prisoners that
signed up for the program only claimed some high school education.
The review of the
literature and an understanding of the prisoners led the director to focus
solely upon basic listening skills, avoiding training in modern
psychology. As the director began to
focus upon basic skills, he began to listen and intentionally pay attention to
the kinds of listening that the Christian prisoners used. While most of the them were very caring and
made every effort to show concern, most prisoners seemed to equate
"helping" with advice giving or scripture quoting: they listened to advise and judge first,
failing to express much empathy or to reflect understanding.
During the prospectus
phase of the doctoral program, the focus settled upon basic helping and
listening skills in the winter of 1995 during the director's taking of New
Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary's course, Research and Writing
Techniques. The basic helping skills
were divided into four categories: body
language, attending, self-disclosure, and empathy.
Development
of the Lessons
The director proceeded
to develop a method of presentation that would keep the participants motivated
and provide them with skill instruction and training. The best training in helping and listening skills came from
secular writers, so the director chose skills that were justifyiable in a
Christian context.
Side-by-side with the
developing of lesson plans dealing with basic helping skills, the director
formulated biblical devotions for every session and found biblical concepts to
undergird the program. The secular
techniques were presented in a manner that followed the biblical
foundation. The underlying thesis for
the whole program was that all of the helping skills, when properly used, had
their origin in the biblical love that was outlined in the theological
rationale in chapter 1.
The theory for
instruction was threefold for each session as reflected in the lesson
plans: (1) give a spiritual foundation,
(2) discuss the skill, and (3) provide practice in the skill. Each day's lesson included at least a devotional,
a lecture, some open discussions, some written exercises, and some role play. During the first six sessions, homework was
given that was expected to be completed and discussed during the following
session in class.
The daily lesson plans
were organized around three broad sets of skills: (1) attending skills on three days, (2) self-disclosure on one
day, and (3) empathy skills on the three final days. The lesson plans contained the devotional for the day and
introductory remarks for each of the overheads and handouts presented to the
experimental group. The program
director relied on the lesson plans to help guide the daily sessions, sometimes
reading verbatim. The lesson plans were
organized and placed in a notebook for use in class. A copy of the lesson plans was placed in appendix 2 of this
report.
Development
of the Instructional Aids
The director decided
to use overheads and handouts as the primary method of guiding the
sessions. The director concluded from
his understanding of the men that most were visual and interactive learners. The director developed the overheads and
handouts so the participants could write, role play, and reflect with each
other about the concepts under consideration.
Vance Drum in his evaluation of the program lesson plans affirmed that
the lesson plans focused on interactive learning.
The overheads and
handouts were constructed to be identical to each other. As an overhead was shown on the screen, the
participant had a copy of the overhead in the form of a handout for his own
use.
The overheads were
numbered so as to distinguish the various days of the program. For instance, #1.2 referred to the first day
and the second overhead. At the
beginning of each session day, the handouts for that day were given to the
men. At the end of the program, the
accumulated handouts were stapled so that the men would have a ready workbook
of the work they had done as well as a resource for the years ahead.
A few exceptions were
made in the overheads presented in the report, and those exceptions were noted
in the introductory remarks at the beginning of appendix 3. The most significant change made to the
overheads that had been presented in class was that the expert responses (that
were blank on the overheads and handouts) to each of the discrimination
exercises were included in parentheses on the copies of the overheads presented
in the project report. Copies of the
overheads were placed in appendix 3 of this report.
Enlistment
of Inmates
Overview
The enlistment
included four phases. (1)
advertisement, (2) enrollment, (3) pretesting, and (4) matching the
experimental and control groups. The
four phases were accomplished by 10 August 1996, the date of the first session
of the program.
Advertisement
To make the program
attractive, the program part of the project was called: "Love, Listening, Liberating: the Art of Christian Caring." A flyer was posted in the chapel bearing the
title of the program. That flyer was
also the first overhead and handout in the program, numbered in appendix 3 as
#1.1: Title.
For two consecutive
Sundays the program was announced to both of the Christian inmate congregations
on the mornings of 7 and 14 July 1996.
During those announcements, the men were told that on 21 July 1996 they
would be given the opportunity to nominate men from the congregation for the
helping skills program.
Enrollment
A simple criteria for
nominations was created, and the men were encouraged to nominate anyone that
they believed was already a helper.
They were told that the nominees needed to have been in the prison
system for at least three months and have at least six months to go before
parole or release. The nominees needed
to be clear of any severe disciplinary actions for the past six months and not
have any pending. The men were told
that they could nominate themselves if they desired and that the chaplain would
be screening the nominees.
On 21 and 28 July
1996, further announcements were made, and nominations were taken from the two
Sunday morning inmate congregations.
The nominations were screened for disciplinary violations and approved
by the chaplain. All sixty-seven
nominees were found suitable.
A roll sheet was
constructed from the list of nominees.
The nominees were invited to the chapel on 3 August 1996 for an overview
and some pretesting. This was done
through the unit mail on an inter-office communication form similar to the one
in appendix 12, item #1.
Pretesting
On 3 August 1996
sixty-seven men arrived. A great
concern at the time was to motivate the men to stay in the program and not be
discouraged or intimidated by the testing, so the director gave appropriate
encouragement as to the value of the program and how much each participant
might gain from the program. All the
men were given an overview of what the program was going to be about based upon
the outline that the experimental group would receive on the first day of
program.
Everyone was told that
if he was chosen to be a part of the second group that he was assured a place
in the second presentation of the program.
They were also told that they were an important part of the program and
that the second presentation would not immediately follow the end of the first
presentation.
The men were told that
the questionnaires were just basic assessments to help the chaplain construct
the two groups. They were
also told that the two groups would be as evenly divided as the director could
divide them. At the least, the division
would be based upon race and with regard to the prison time they were assigned
to serve: whether aggravated or
non-aggravated. They were told that
only one group would be able to attend the first presentation of the program
and that both groups would take two of the three assessment tests twice.
During this first
testing, the men appeared to have some misgivings about taking a test over material
they had not studied. To allay some of
the misgivings, the men were told that they were not expected to know a lot of
what the questionnaires were asking.
They were given instructions like, "just do your best and leave
blank anything you do not understand" and "do not worry." They were told that the questionnaire part
of the program was part of the chaplain's school project and that those
participating were helping the chaplain in his school project. Those statements seemed to allay some of the
misgivings that the participants had indicated.
The men were asked to
be honest about their intentions. The
director asked if there were any men who felt they needed to be in the first
group for fear of being transferred or other reasons. The director asked the men if any of them simply felt like they
needed to be in the first group for various reasons like the possibility of
transfer. Also the director felt like a
few of the men would severely dislike or even resent taking the test a second
time if they had not gone through the program first, and the director told the
men that such a reason would also be considered in the dividing of the two
groups. There were five men who felt a
special need to be a part of the first program irrespective of the criteria for
the experimental and control groups.
At approximately 12:45
P.M., the men were given the three preprogram instruments: the Preprogram Background Questionnaire
(PBQ), the Counselor Response Questionnaire
(CRQ), and the Responding Questionnaire (RQ). The data
from the first two questionnaires (PBQ and CRQ) were used in the construction
of the experimental and control groups.
Later in the project evaluation, the data from the second two
questionnaires (CRQ and RQ) were correlated with the posttest scores of the men
in both groups, composing part of the formal evaluation.
Matching
the Experimental and Control Groups
From the Preprogram
Background Questionnaire, the sixty-seven participants were divided
according to a few preselected sociological designations. Those designations were: race, whether the men were serving
aggravated or non-aggravated time, and whether or not the men received any
regular monthly visitors.
The questionnaires
yielded four racial groups: black,
white, Hispanic, and Vietnamese. For
the purposes of the program, the men were divided accordingly: 30 black, 24 white, and 13 Hispanic (the one
Vietnamese was included in the Hispanic group).
To obtain a balance
between the types of offenses committed, the men in their racial group were
sub-divided into those serving non-aggravated ("na") and aggravated
("a") time. Additionally,
multiple offenders who had been sentenced three or more times were also placed
in the aggravated group. The reason was
that multiple offenders seemed to be sociologically more similar to aggravated
offenders than to non-aggravated offenders. The men
were grouped as follows: 7 black
"na," 23 black "a";
10 white "na," 14 white "a"; 6 Hispanic "na" and 7 Hispanic
"a."
To distinguish between
men with varying levels of freeworld communications, those receiving at least
one visit a month ("yes") were separated from those who had not
("no"). The last sociological
division of the men yielded the following in table 1:
Table 1.--Sociological Breakdown of Participants
"Yes" "No"
3 black "na" 4 black
"na"
7 black "a" 16 black
"a"
3 white "na" 7 white
"na"
7 white "a" 7 white
"a"
2 Hispanic "na" 4 Hispanic
"na"
3 Hispanic "a" 4 Hispanic
"a"
To divide the men into
two matched groups, the participants' scores on the Counselor Response
Questionnaire (CRQ) were used. The
scores indicated varying levels of counselor skills, and those scores were used
to make the final division between the control and experimental groups.
In deciding between
two scores within a particular sociological category, preference was given to
the five men who had expressed a deep need for being in the first
presentation. When several scores were
close to each other within each category, a preference was given to the lower score
for inclusion in the experimental group based on a pastoral decision to include
those with the greatest need over those with the lesser need. In dividing the sixty-seven men, the
experimental group was given thirty-three.
The control group was given thirty-four. The division of the CRQ scores within the men's sociological
categories yielded the following categorizations in table 2.
Table 2.--Preprogram CRQ Scores Categorized
Preprogram
Experimental Group CRQ
Scores Categorized
"Yes" "No"
black
"na" 32, 23 black "na" 24, 14
black
"a" 37, 30, 25, 17 black "a" 41, 31, 27, 25, 21, 20, 9
white
"na" 34 white "na" 41, 28, 25, 21
white
"a" 38, 35, 21 white "a" 38, 32, 29, 24
Hispanic
"na" 25 Hispanic "na" 30, 23
Hispanic
"a" 21 Hispanic "a" 26, 14
Preprogram
Control Group CRQ
Scores Categorized
"Yes" "No"
black
"na" 32 black "na" 24, 24
black
"a" 37, 32, 29 black "a" 40, 33, 28, 28, 24, 24,
21,
20, 16
white
"na" 34, 29 white "na" 28, 27, 26
white
"a" 42, 38, 35, 24 white "a" 40, 28, 24
Hispanic
"na" 23 Hispanic "na" 30, 24
Hispanic
"a" 29, 11 Hispanic "a" 44, 27
Statistics from the
scores of the experimental group and the control group were calculated. Some of the statistics were calculated with
the help of the StataQuest 4 statistical program by Stata Corporation. Even
though the control group contained one more score and even though preference
was given to the control group for the higher of two scores in the division,
the statistics indicated a close distribution of scores between the two
groups. The statistics were reported
below in table 3.
Table 3.--Preprogram Experimental/Control
Group CRQ Statistics
Experimental Group Control
Group
Observations 33.0 34.0
Range = 9.0
- 41.0 11.0
- 44.0
Mode = 21.0,
25.0 (bi-modal) 24.0
Median = 25.0 28.0
= 26.69697 28.676471
X = 881.0 975.0
X2 = 25,475.0 29,703.0
= 7.696850 7.160843
2 = 59.241506 51.277682
g1 = -0.032420 0.097746
g2 = 2.616659 3.041746
The medians, modes,
and means indicated a similarity between the two groups with respect to
measures of central tendency. Though
the sums of the scores and the sums of the squares of the scores indicated a
slight difference, the difference was considered negligible compared to the
other similarities. The variances and
standard deviations indicated a similarity between the two groups with respect
to variability within each group of scores.
Despite the negative skewness of the experimental group's curve and the
positive skewness of the other's curve, the two curves were skewed only a
little from a normal distribution, and therefore were similar. The kurtosis of each group indicated
similarities between the two groups with respect to how both group's
distributional curves deviated from a normal distribution with leptokurtic
distributions. Given the divisions
according to sociological variables and the above distribution of the CRQ
scores, the two groups were considered to be matched evenly enough for purposes
of program evaluation of the control and experimental groups' posttest scores
on the RQ and CRQ.
Implementation
of the Program
Overview
The program was
implemented on seven consecutive Saturdays.
The meetings were scheduled from 12:00 to 3:00 P.M. and were held in the
chapel. The director gave instruction
and facilitated prout certificates of completion actice in the use of attending
skills on the first three days. On the
fourth day, the director gave instruction and facilitated practice in
self-disclosure. On the last three
days, the director gave instruction and facilitated practice in the use of
empathy skills.
Summarization
of Daily Lessons
Day
1: Part 1: The Foundation--Overview and Attending Skills
The objective of the
first session was to help the students understand the entire program and to
develop their ability to use attending skills set #1 of body language. The development was facilitated through
instruction, observation, and use in class.
The objective was accomplished through an overview, instruction, role
play, open discussion, and written assignments.
From the beginning of
the session, the director followed the lesson plans he had constructed. During
the session, overheads and handouts were used:
numbered #1.1 through #1.11.
At the end of the
first session, the director gave instructions for the homework exercise. Afterwards, the director recorded his
pastoral observations and reflections.
Day 2: Part 1:
The Foundation--Attending Skills Set 2
The objective of the
second session was to help the students develop their ability to use attending
skills sets #1 and #2 through instruction, observation, and use of case study
scenarios in class. The objective was
accomplished through an overview, instruction, role play, open discussion, and
written assignments.
From the beginning of
the session, the director followed the lesson plans he had constructed. During the session, overheads and handouts
were used: numbered #1.1, #1.10a-1.11,
and #2.1-#2.7b.
At the end of the
second session, the director gave instructions for the homework exercise. Afterwards, the director recorded his
pastoral observations and reflections.
Day
3: Part 1: The Foundation--Attending Skills Set 3
The objective of the
third session was to help students develop their ability to use attending
skills sets #2 and #3 through instruction, observation, and use of case study
scenarios in class. The objective was
accomplished through an overview, instruction, role play, open discussion, and
written assignments.
From the beginning of
the session, the director followed the lesson plans he had constructed. During the session, overheads and handouts
were used: numbered #1.1, #2.7a-b, and
#3.1-#3.10b.
At the end of the
third session, the director gave instructions for the homework exercise. Afterwards, the director recorded his
pastoral observations and reflections.
Day
4: Part 2: The Interpersonal Bridge of Self-Disclosure
The objective of the
fourth session was to help the students understand their interpersonal style
and develop their ability to use appropriate self-disclosure with the attending
skills through instruction, observation, and use of case study scenarios in
class. The objective was accomplished
through use of the Interpersonal Check List (ICL), open discussion, and written assignments.
From the beginning of
the session, the director followed the lesson plans he had constructed. During the session, overheads and handouts
were used: numbered #1.1, #3.10a-b, and
#4.1-#4.5b.
At the end of the
fourth session, the director gave instructions for the homework exercise. Afterwards, the director recorded his
pastoral observations and reflections.
Day
5: Part 3: The Connection--Empathic Skills Level 1
The objective of the
fifth session was to help the students understand the basic concept of empathy
and develop their ability to use accurate empathic skills through instruction,
observation, and use of case study scenarios in class. The objective was accomplished through an
overview, instruction, role play, open discussion, and written assignments.
From the beginning of
the session, the director followed the lesson plans he had constructed. During the session, overheads and handouts
were used: numbered #1.1, #4.5a-b, and
#5.1-#5.6b.
At the end of the
fifth session, the director gave instructions for the homework exercise. Afterwards, the director recorded his
pastoral observations and reflections.
Day
6: Part 3: The Connection--Empathic Skills Level 2
The objective of the
sixth session was to help the students develop their ability to use advanced
accurate empathic skills through instruction, observation, and use of case
study scenarios in class. The objective
was accomplished through an overview, instruction, role play, open discussion,
and written assignments.
From the beginning of
the session, the director followed the lesson plans he had constructed. During the session, overheads and handouts
were used: numbered #1.1, #5.6a-b, and
#6.1-#6.7b.
At the end of the
sixth session, the director gave instructions for the homework exercise. Afterwards, the director recorded his
pastoral observations and reflections.
Day
7: Part 3: The Connection--Empathic Skills Level 2
The objective of the
seventh session was to help the students to further develop their ability to
use advanced accurate empathic skills through instruction and observation and
by use of case study scenarios in class.
The objective was accomplished through an overview, instruction, role
play, open discussion, and written assignments.
Chaplain Alex Taylor
arrived. The director gave Chaplain
Taylor a copy of the day's lesson plans, a copy of the handouts, and some
verbal instructions to evaluate the program in the light of his knowledge and
in the light of the lesson plan objectives.
From the beginning of
the session, the director followed the lesson plans he had constructed. During the session, overheads and handouts
were used: numbered #1.1, #6.7a-b, and
#7.1-#7.8.
On 16 September 1996,
the director sent to all of the men a final notice about the last session of
the program and encouraged them to be present. On 21
September 1996, the seventh and last day of the program, the experimental group
was given the posttests (CRQ and RQ).
Afterwards, the director recorded his pastoral observations and
reflections.
Posttesting
On 22 September 1996
during the two Sunday morning services, the director gave to the experimental
group participants certificates of recognition like the one seen in appendix
12, item #3. During the two Sunday
morning services, the men were encouraged to fill out the Postprogram Helpee
Follow-up Questionnaire. During
the week after 22 September 1996, the men in the experimental group were given
the Postprogram Interview Questionnaire.
On 28 September 1996,
the director gave the posttests (CRQ and RQ) to the control group in the
chapel. The men in the control group
were encouraged again to keep their spirits high. A date for a second presentation of the program still had not
been set.